Traditionally, holotypes are physical specimens, so unless biologists can obtain an organism that’s already dead (or capture one alive and care for it for the rest of its life), they must kill a member of the newly discovered species in order to describe it.
Frog specimens in jars. Image credit kqedquest, CC BY-SA 2.0.
In taxonomy, a type specimen is an individual organism used to officially represent a species or subspecies. The type specimen referenced when describing a new species for the first time is called a holotype. No new taxon can be officially named without a holotype, according to the rules of the various International Codes of Nomenclature, which apply to different fields of biology (including zoology, botany, and microbiology). Traditionally, holotypes are physical specimens, meaning that unless biologists can obtain an organism that’s already dead (or capture one alive and care for it for the rest of its life), they must kill a member of the newly discovered species in order to describe it.
A caracara eating a turtle. Rollo Beck personally wiped out a
whole species from both groups in the name of science. Image credit
Mike’s Birds, CC BY-SA 2.0
Obviously, this presents a number of ethical concerns. If a new
species turns out to be critically endangered, the killing of even
one individual can significantly increase the species’ probability
of extinction, not only by reducing the total population number but
by removing genetic diversity, orphaning young, or disrupting larger
social structures. The collection of specimens for scientific study
has in fact tipped several species over the edge; for example, the
(in)famous ornithologist Rollo Beck killed nine of the last 11 known
Guadalupe caracaras and three of the last four Pinta Island
tortoises for museum collections. Although modern conservation
biologists are undoubtedly more cautious in collecting than the
naturalists of centuries past, it remains fully possible that the
process of describing a new, rare species could do more to further
endanger it than to protect it.
Besides threatening conservation, the killing of an animal should
also raise ethical concerns in itself. The decision to take any
sentient life demands careful cost / benefit analysis and
consideration of whether the same information can be obtained
through non-lethal means. If we accept that capacities like
self-awareness, social relationships, and the capacity to suffer
(now well documented in many animal groups) entitle a being to moral
consideration, we must seriously reflect on whether we even possess
the right to obtain new information at animals’ expense. Will naming
a population of animals as a new species directly benefit those left
alive, serving a “greater good” large enough to outweigh the fear,
pain, and death of the holotype? As ornithologist Thomas M. Donegan
(2011) puts it:
“I consider that killing should not be undertaken lightly or for
reasons of convenience as is currently the practice. And even if we
consider that it is on the facts impossible to test a certain
hypothesis without taking a specimen, we should ask a final
important question: whether we as human beings have the right to
find out the answer to that question where to do so would require
the death of another creature.”
Killing in order to study (and therefore conserve) may also create
an “image problem” for conservation, confusing the general public,
creating backlash against conservationists, or setting an example
for amateur nature enthusiasts that it’s okay to kill wildlife out
of curiosity.
Sinha et al. (2004) broke with taxonomic tradition in allowing
the holotype of the Arunachal macaque (Macaca munzala) to live out
his life in the wild. Image credit Kingshuk Mondal, CC BY-SA 2.0.
Although physical type specimens remain the norm in taxonomy, there
have been instances in which new species have been described (and
accepted by the scientific community) without collecting an
individual. In botany it was once the norm for many plant species to
be described from photographs or even detailed drawings, although as
of 2007 this is no longer allowed for new botanical taxa. In
mycology, new species of fungi have been named based solely on
genetic samples from environmental DNA. In zoology, several species
have been named in peer-reviewed publications using photographs of
living animals as holotypes, including the Arunachal macaque and
Bugun Liocichla. In the latter case, the bird’s discoverer Ramana
Athreya (2006) specifically cited conservation concerns in opting
not to kill a specimen, as the entire known population consisted of
only three breeding pairs.
Photographs, hair/feather samples, or genetic material may be
sufficient in order to distinguish new taxa and base decisions on
how to protect them, and photos and movies may make better holotypes
for organisms that don’t preserve well. New technologies could also
produce other alternatives for traditional holotypes, such as next
generation trail cameras that can produce detailed 3D models from a
series of photographs.
Some researchers remain skeptical of
alternatives to killing, arguing that physical specimens provide the
most detailed information, offer security against hoaxes and
forgery, and are necessary to differentiate closely related species
that may appear outwardly the same. However, naming species without
killing holotypes is fortunately becoming more mainstream, as
scientists grapple more with the ethics of killing, especially in
the midst of a biodiversity crisis.
It is time for conservation biology to move away from killing
members of new species in order to describe them. Transitioning to
non-lethal methods of study may create temporary inconveniences for
some zoologists, but scientists of all people must not be afraid to
innovate, especially to better save both endangered species and the
living individuals of whom species consist.